📖 Foolproof

“The greatest enemy of knowledge is not ignorance; it is the illusion of knowledge.”

This quote is often credited to Stephen Hawking, but best documented earlier by historian Daniel J. Boorstin, with both wording and attribution drifting over time (read more).

The irony is hard to miss: it’s a warning against false certainty, repeated with false certainty—and that same reflex is how people end up buying the snake oil of their time.

What leads to an illusion of knowledge?

A 2024 study revealed that formal education didn’t meaningfully improve people’s ability to tell true from false—analytical thinking did. Translation:

Misinformation doesn't fool “dumb people”.
It fools busy people. Confident people. People who don’t pause.

In Foolproof, Cambridge psychologist Sander van der Linden explains why—and what actually helps separate signal from noise.

Van der Linden outlines six manipulation tactics to help you recognize misinformation (the “Bad News” toolkit):

• Emotional manipulation: “feel first, think later”

• Polarization: us-vs-them narratives

• Conspiracy framing: “they don’t want you to know”

• Trolling: provoking outrage for engagement

• Deflection / blame shifting: changing the target

• Impersonation: fake accounts and stolen credibility

Sander van der Linden also co-created the Bad News game — an intervention where you learn manipulation tactics by role-playing as a fake news producer.

Research has shown that exposure to weakened doses of misinformation techniques like this can help develop resistance against misinformation, but the results can fade after months if they aren’t reinforced. (Maertens et al., 2021)

Where to find illusions of knowledge?

The misinformation playbook isn’t just used for news or politics. It’s also in your wellness feed. From detox schemes and exercise extremes, to career hacks and financial advice, the tactics are universal. It’s how supplements get sold, diets go viral, and exercise myths spread.

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTOR

Brian S. Dye, Ed.D., is the founder of Wellness Literacy Co., an evidence-based wellness education platform focused on helping people find and apply credible guidance in their real lives.

Brian’s core focus is Wellness Literacy: the skill of cutting through wellness noise — evaluating sources, understanding evidence strength, and turning what’s credible into routines you can actually do.

Brian has joined Slightly Smarter as a Wellness contributor, so expect more from him in the future!